EARLY MODERN PHILOSOPHY & PHILOSOPHERS-INTRODUCTION

A new philosophy calls all in doubt,

The element of fire is quite put out;

The sun is lost and the earth, and no man’s wit

Can well direct him where to look for it.

                                    John Donne

Classical philosophy belonged essentially to a combination of Plato and Aristotle, and medieval philosophy belonged to St. Thomas. The early modern period was radically different. The early modern period is noted less by a set of enduring answers as it was a set of persistent questions. The early modern period in philosophy coincides with the momentous changes happening in Europe at the time of the Renaissance, Reformation and in science. The changes that took place at this time still greatly impacts our world and thought today. That is why it is still important to study this period of time. It helps point to where we are today.

The Middle Ages were a religious centric time. God was the great and good creator of all things. Everything was created for a purpose and all science of this period was also God-centric or else it was deemed to be heresy, (such as Galileo). The Universe had no meaning in itself. With the onset of the early modern period, this started to change. Prior to this period, the Church (Catholic Church) was the most powerful institution in Europe, more so than the state.  This started to change as did Man’s vision of himself within this world. 

Both classical and medieval philosophies and sciences for that matter were teleological in nature. Teleological means an argument from design, or an intelligent design argument for the existence of God or, more generally, for an intelligent creator. This concept changed with the advent of the Renaissance and as science became more scientific with the creation of the scientific method, which is still in use today.

The Renaissance changed the way man viewed the world of social, political and economic issues. The good life no longer necessarily meant having a good relationship with God which was all consuming in the Middle Ages. Now it became more important to have a right relationship with one’s fellow man and with the state.

The attitude towards values also changed at this time. Medieval man believed values to be objectively real. Once the teleological conception of the universe was rejected, it became easy to also reject the objectivity of values. Most of the early modern philosophers tried to draw a distinction between matter and values (spirit, soul, mind, etc.). Matter reflected the new physics and sciences evolving at the time, and was subject to the properties of the new physics. The mind on the other hand was where eternal truths, the ability to determine right from wrong, and where values were located. This is called dualism or metaphysical dualism.  This initially had some plausibility but was fatally flawed from the start.

Coinciding with the Renaissance was the Protestant Reformation. The Reformation dealt with spiritual issues and the Catholic Church. This altered the way Man viewed his relationship with God. It was also a revolt against the Catholic Church and the papacy. Prior to this period, the Church was the only link between Man and God. The corruption within the Church and the greed of the popes contributed to this change significantly. Events like the Great Schism and the levying of annates, selling of benefices and offices, increased the resistance of people to the Church.

The straw that broke the camel’s back, so to speak, was the subsequent sale of indulgences. An indulgence was essentially an insurance policy sold by the pope against any inconveniences in the next life. Martin Luther was clearly the most influential person coming out of the Reformation. It was his opposition to indulgences, as well as other Church practices, that led to the formation of his 95 theses.

Martin Luther was a tortured soul who entered a monastery to find answers to the many questions he had. Luther was looking for a sense of forgiveness from God and for salvation. He entered a monastery to seek these answers but all was in vain. Luther had recourse to a copy of a Bible in the monastery and decided to read it even though he was advised against it. He was instructed to rely on interpreters and Scholastics for his answers as opposed to actually reading the Bible. By reading the Bible, and Paul’s letter to the Romans, Luther found the doctrine of salvation, by faith alone, rather than by works of penance alms-giving or asceticism. Luther discovered that Man stood in direct relation to God and didn't need any intermediaries to obtain salvation. He needed only faith. This was revolutionary and created a tidal wave within the Church. 

Luther reached the conclusion that the Bible did not require interpretation but could be understood by every man. He believed the authority of the Bible, as interpreted by every man for himself, should be substituted for the authority of the Church. Luther’s position on these matters led to the creation of a new theology and the Protestant Reformation. 

The creation of the scientific method was the third element of importance occurring at this time. This new method involved both empirical and deductive elements. In many ways, this harkens back to the Classical philosophers. An abiding curiosity about the world around them was necessary. Medicine and the study of the Human body also became very important at this time. Leonardo da Vinci and Francis Bacon were notable figures here, as was Galileo.  Da Vinci believed that all our knowledge has its origins in our perceptions. The operation of the scientific method was by consulting experience first and then testing it with reason. With regards to testing nature, he believed you needed to start with the end product and work back to its cause. He believed experience is never wrong; it is judgment that is wrong.

Bacon coined the term “knowledge is power”. Bacon was a strong proponent of the scientific method also. However, he seemed more interested in politics and power than in scientific discovery for itself.

The new scientific methodology also contained a strong mathematical component. Math was considered certain and infallible. Hence, a new hypothesis can be tested empirically, by observation and testing, and by abstractions and rationally through mathematics. Should the obtained results differ from our testing, then it is the hypothesis that is in error. Medieval man based their beliefs on Aristotelian syllogistic logic. This logic was more concerned with the form of the arguments instead of the truth of its premises. Therefore, many very sound logical arguments were proved to be incorrect because the premise or underlying assumptions of the argument were not correct or true. Hence the entire argument was based upon faulty assumptions.

Many of the more significant advances in science at this time was made in astronomy and physics, which naturally were very observation and mathematical reliant. These advances were made by Copernicus, Kepler and Galileo chiefly but not solely.

One of the problems encountered as a result of the new physics, which dealt with matter in motion, what happened to qualities that could not be measured and did not necessarily occupy any space. Such thing as those found in the sensuous world. Things like color smell sounds, taste, were not subject to the new physics. Hence, what are these things? It was determined that what they are should be called appearances. These qualities do not actually reside in the object being observed but reside within the observer’s mind. The objects outside of us are not really red, or smell sweet, or sound soft, they are merely appearances that arise in our minds, sense organs, etc. as a result of quantitatively describable stimuli that affects this result on us. Galileo was a proponent of this belief.

The above is a brief introduction to what was happening in the western world at the time of the Renaissance. It was a perfect storm as changes were occurring in every realm of human knowledge and belief. The above shows some positive changes that occurred and also shows some of the short comings in thought. Future articles will deal with the different major philosophers during this time of change which in many ways continue to affect us today.