EARLY MODERN PHILOSOPHY & PHILOSOPHERS-RENE DESCARTES (PART 2)

Descartes was not alone in his rejection and dissatisfaction of Scholasticism. Many philosophers at this time had similar thoughts but not everyone approached the problem the same. In the case of Descartes, he looked to his inner self for the answer to his quest for absolute certainty. Descartes believed strongly in mathematical certainty. He always considered it as separate from the other sciences because of its certainty. Mathematical knowledge was absolute and mathematical reasoning was the basis upon which a metaphysical structure, a system of values and a God could be built. Unlike Hobbes, and many other early modern philosophers, Descartes believed that there is an objective, rational order to the world that the mind understands in its intuitions. As such, Descartes was a rationalist as opposed to the Empiricists of the time that included Hobbes. I’ll write more on this in later submissions.  

Descartes began his search for certainty by seeking some metaphysical absolute that is a self evident and indisputable principle on which to build his belief system. Much like in  geometry, you start with one undeniable self evident truth and then look to other theorems that depend on that truth to build upon. This is how Descartes hoped to progress. He decided to proceed by questioning his every belief no matter how widely accepted or likely it might be. He was searching for an undeniable, absolute starting point. This doubt also extended  to God which Descartes had always believed to be all powerful and his creator.

Through this process, Descartes realized that the one thing he was certain of is that he doubted. He reasoned that even if God is an evil deceiver who devotes all his energies to deceiving me, it is impossible to believe that he could deceive me about my own existence. I must exist to be so deceived. As such, I must exist in order to doubt that I exist. This was his undeniable self evident truth on which to build his philosophy. Descartes’ famous phrase: “Cogito, Ergo Sum”, I think, therefore I am. This was the cornerstone of Descartes belief. However, when Descartes stated that he existed, what did he actually mean? Simply, he meant that he existed as something that thinks, nothing more. He did not affirm the existence of a body or anything else other than that he existed as a thinking entity. This was the first of his six meditations.  

After discovering this indubitable truth, Descartes inquires as to what is required in a proposition for it to be true and certain. By examining a proposition that is known to be true and certain, such as the one he just discovered, he hopes to find a general criterion of certainty. He concludes there is nothing in cogito, ergo sum, which is assuring of truth except that he sees very clearly and distinctly what is affirmed. As such, he came to the conclusion that he might assume as a general rule that the things we conceive very clearly and distinctly are all true. By clear Descartes meant that which is present and apparent to an attentive mind  in the same way as we assert that we see objects clearly when, being present to the beholding eye, they operate upon it with sufficient strength. By distinct he meant that which is so precise and different from all other objects that it contains within itself nothing but what is clear. A perception can be clear without it being distinct. However, it cannot be distinct without it being clear.

Now Descartes has established the criterion for discerning truth and certainty. However, how do we ascertain those things which are distinctly perceived? Secondly, a God may have endowed me with such a nature that I may have been deceived even concerning things which seemed to me most manifest. Descartes had no reason to believe that there was such a deceiving God, however; as yet, Descartes had not satisfied himself that there was a God. While he believed any reason for doubting his criterion was slim, it none the less existed. As such, he had to prove the existence of a God who is not a deceiver.  

To be continued.

EARLY MODERN PHILOSOPHY & PHILOSOPHERS- RENE DESCARTES

Rene Descartes was born in 1596 and died in 1650. He was born in Tours, France and educated at La Fle’che, a Jesuit college, where he studied physics, Scholastic philosophy and mathematics. Descartes is considered, rightfully so, as the father of modern philosophy. Descartes had a strong desire to learn and was clearly a gifted student. Descartes was quoted as saying that “philosophy teaches us to speak with an appearance of truth about all things and causes us to be admired by the less learned…” Descartes life was spent in a quest for certainty.

After leaving school, Descartes joined the army of Prince Maurice of Nassau, which seems quite odd, and did not take any pay. During this time he studied mathematics and wrote several papers including a treatise on music. He left the service in 1619. Also in 1619, Descartes had three consecutive mystical dreams much like Augustine before him. However these dreams led not to salvation of his soul, but to the discovery of a new scientific method.

Descartes was a devout Catholic and died in the faith. In fact his faith had an impact on his philosophy. Descartes avoided theological discussions and contented himself with problems which he believed could be solved by reason alone.

In 1637 Descartes published his “Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting the Reason and Seeking for Truth in the Sciences,” (Discourse on the Method). This method worked out over several years was formulated in 21 “Rules for the Direction of the Mind”. The Rules were written earlier but published posthumously. In 1641 Descartes published his “Meditations on First Philosophy” which was accompanied by six sets of objections submitted by various theologians and philosophers and by Descartes answers to these objections. “Principles of Philosophy” was published in 1644 and in 1649 and treatise “The Passions of the Soul” was published.

The Cartesian method reflects Descartes passion for certainty. His quest was for a universal and infallible method of reasoning. This method is formulated in his 21 rules. Rule III is one of the most important of the rules. It states that in the subjects that we investigate, our inquiries should not be directed to what others have thought nor to our own preconceptions, but only to what we can clearly know and with certainty deduce. Descartes believed that there are only two mental operations by which we are able to arrive at the knowledge of things. The two operations are through intuition and deduction.

By intuition Descartes did not mean the results from our senses, nor constructions of the imagination, but the conception which an unclouded and attentive mind gives us so distinctly that we are free from doubt about which we understand. Intuition springs from light of reason alone. By deduction, Descartes meant that we understand all necessary inference from other facts that are known with certainty. Descartes believed that many things are known with certainty but are not self evident, but are deduced from true and known principles by the continuous and uninterrupted action of a mind that has a clear vision of each step in the deductive process.

Rule IV is for the need of a method for finding out the truth. By a method Descartes meant a certain and simple rule such that if a man observe them accurately, he shall never assume what is false as true. Rule V states that method consists entirely in the order and disposition of the objects towards which our mental vision must be directed if we are to find any truth. We shall comply with it exactly if we reduce involved and obscure propositions step by step to those that are simpler, and then starting with the intuitive apprehension of all those that are absolutely simple, attempt to ascend to the knowledge of all others by precisely similar steps.

Rule VI states that in order to separate out what is simple from what is complex, and to arrange these matters methodically, we ought , in the case of every series in which we have  deduced certain facts the one from the other, to notice which fact is simpler. This rule is certainly the secret to the method. It states that all facts can be arranged in a certain series in that certain truths can be known from others. Things should not be regarded as isolated realities, but should be compared with one another in order to discover the dependence in knowledge of one upon the other, and as such all things can be said to be absolute or relative. Absolute contains within itself the pure and simple essence of what we are in quest. The relative is that which, while participating in the same nature enables us to relate it to the absolute and to deduce it from that by a chain of operations. There are few pure and simple essences. They should be carefully noticed for they are just those facts which we have called the simplest in any series. All others can only be perceived as deductions from these.

Rule VIII states that if in matters to be examined we come to a step in the series of which our understanding is not sufficiently able to have a intuitive cognition, we should stop and go no further. We should spare ourselves superfluous labor.

As you can tell from these few rules, Descartes had a passion for certainty. That was not unusual in this age were centuries of authority was being rejected. Descartes believed knowledge was revealed truth. Descartes believed that reason was equal in all men and that reason was adequate to the power of forming good judgment and the ability to distinguish the true from the false. This was different from the Greeks who believed reason was adequate but not distributed equally in all men. In the Middle Ages, little or no account was taken of reason but they assumed all men were morally equal before God.

Descartes part two to follow.

EARLY MODERN PHILOSOPHY & PHILOSOPHERS-INTRODUCTION

A new philosophy calls all in doubt,

The element of fire is quite put out;

The sun is lost and the earth, and no man’s wit

Can well direct him where to look for it.

                                    John Donne

Classical philosophy belonged essentially to a combination of Plato and Aristotle, and medieval philosophy belonged to St. Thomas. The early modern period was radically different. The early modern period is noted less by a set of enduring answers as it was a set of persistent questions. The early modern period in philosophy coincides with the momentous changes happening in Europe at the time of the Renaissance, Reformation and in science. The changes that took place at this time still greatly impacts our world and thought today. That is why it is still important to study this period of time. It helps point to where we are today.

The Middle Ages were a religious centric time. God was the great and good creator of all things. Everything was created for a purpose and all science of this period was also God-centric or else it was deemed to be heresy, (such as Galileo). The Universe had no meaning in itself. With the onset of the early modern period, this started to change. Prior to this period, the Church (Catholic Church) was the most powerful institution in Europe, more so than the state.  This started to change as did Man’s vision of himself within this world. 

Both classical and medieval philosophies and sciences for that matter were teleological in nature. Teleological means an argument from design, or an intelligent design argument for the existence of God or, more generally, for an intelligent creator. This concept changed with the advent of the Renaissance and as science became more scientific with the creation of the scientific method, which is still in use today.

The Renaissance changed the way man viewed the world of social, political and economic issues. The good life no longer necessarily meant having a good relationship with God which was all consuming in the Middle Ages. Now it became more important to have a right relationship with one’s fellow man and with the state.

The attitude towards values also changed at this time. Medieval man believed values to be objectively real. Once the teleological conception of the universe was rejected, it became easy to also reject the objectivity of values. Most of the early modern philosophers tried to draw a distinction between matter and values (spirit, soul, mind, etc.). Matter reflected the new physics and sciences evolving at the time, and was subject to the properties of the new physics. The mind on the other hand was where eternal truths, the ability to determine right from wrong, and where values were located. This is called dualism or metaphysical dualism.  This initially had some plausibility but was fatally flawed from the start.

Coinciding with the Renaissance was the Protestant Reformation. The Reformation dealt with spiritual issues and the Catholic Church. This altered the way Man viewed his relationship with God. It was also a revolt against the Catholic Church and the papacy. Prior to this period, the Church was the only link between Man and God. The corruption within the Church and the greed of the popes contributed to this change significantly. Events like the Great Schism and the levying of annates, selling of benefices and offices, increased the resistance of people to the Church.

The straw that broke the camel’s back, so to speak, was the subsequent sale of indulgences. An indulgence was essentially an insurance policy sold by the pope against any inconveniences in the next life. Martin Luther was clearly the most influential person coming out of the Reformation. It was his opposition to indulgences, as well as other Church practices, that led to the formation of his 95 theses.

Martin Luther was a tortured soul who entered a monastery to find answers to the many questions he had. Luther was looking for a sense of forgiveness from God and for salvation. He entered a monastery to seek these answers but all was in vain. Luther had recourse to a copy of a Bible in the monastery and decided to read it even though he was advised against it. He was instructed to rely on interpreters and Scholastics for his answers as opposed to actually reading the Bible. By reading the Bible, and Paul’s letter to the Romans, Luther found the doctrine of salvation, by faith alone, rather than by works of penance alms-giving or asceticism. Luther discovered that Man stood in direct relation to God and didn't need any intermediaries to obtain salvation. He needed only faith. This was revolutionary and created a tidal wave within the Church. 

Luther reached the conclusion that the Bible did not require interpretation but could be understood by every man. He believed the authority of the Bible, as interpreted by every man for himself, should be substituted for the authority of the Church. Luther’s position on these matters led to the creation of a new theology and the Protestant Reformation. 

The creation of the scientific method was the third element of importance occurring at this time. This new method involved both empirical and deductive elements. In many ways, this harkens back to the Classical philosophers. An abiding curiosity about the world around them was necessary. Medicine and the study of the Human body also became very important at this time. Leonardo da Vinci and Francis Bacon were notable figures here, as was Galileo.  Da Vinci believed that all our knowledge has its origins in our perceptions. The operation of the scientific method was by consulting experience first and then testing it with reason. With regards to testing nature, he believed you needed to start with the end product and work back to its cause. He believed experience is never wrong; it is judgment that is wrong.

Bacon coined the term “knowledge is power”. Bacon was a strong proponent of the scientific method also. However, he seemed more interested in politics and power than in scientific discovery for itself.

The new scientific methodology also contained a strong mathematical component. Math was considered certain and infallible. Hence, a new hypothesis can be tested empirically, by observation and testing, and by abstractions and rationally through mathematics. Should the obtained results differ from our testing, then it is the hypothesis that is in error. Medieval man based their beliefs on Aristotelian syllogistic logic. This logic was more concerned with the form of the arguments instead of the truth of its premises. Therefore, many very sound logical arguments were proved to be incorrect because the premise or underlying assumptions of the argument were not correct or true. Hence the entire argument was based upon faulty assumptions.

Many of the more significant advances in science at this time was made in astronomy and physics, which naturally were very observation and mathematical reliant. These advances were made by Copernicus, Kepler and Galileo chiefly but not solely.

One of the problems encountered as a result of the new physics, which dealt with matter in motion, what happened to qualities that could not be measured and did not necessarily occupy any space. Such thing as those found in the sensuous world. Things like color smell sounds, taste, were not subject to the new physics. Hence, what are these things? It was determined that what they are should be called appearances. These qualities do not actually reside in the object being observed but reside within the observer’s mind. The objects outside of us are not really red, or smell sweet, or sound soft, they are merely appearances that arise in our minds, sense organs, etc. as a result of quantitatively describable stimuli that affects this result on us. Galileo was a proponent of this belief.

The above is a brief introduction to what was happening in the western world at the time of the Renaissance. It was a perfect storm as changes were occurring in every realm of human knowledge and belief. The above shows some positive changes that occurred and also shows some of the short comings in thought. Future articles will deal with the different major philosophers during this time of change which in many ways continue to affect us today.